e-ISSN: 2319 - 9849
Sri Vasavi制药科学研究所,印度安得拉邦西哥达瓦里区Tadepalligudem
收到日期:03/09/2016;修订日期:08/09/2016;接受日期:10/09/2016
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19世纪中期,逻辑专家们开始在常规科学和无机科学之间进行改进,前者关注从动植物来源获得的材料,后者则监督从各种来源获得的材料。随着对普通材料的学习的扩展,特征科学有机会成为碳共混艺术的代名词。19世纪初的常规检查仅仅适用于分离相关物质的混合物,这些方法尽可能多地实现了传递误导的物质的重要人造改变。
工业化学,有机化学,金属
拉瓦锡是第一个改进论证方法的人[1-20.]用于检验普通材料的碳和氢物质。他将这些材料浸泡在氧气或空气中,测量被包围的二氧化碳和水的含量。吕萨克和德纳德将这种特殊材料与氧化专家氯酸钾反应,从而改进了程序。当氧化铜[21取代了氯酸钾。贝采里乌斯和李比希在1831年进一步改进了这一过程。李比希的方法使严格的检验得以进行,并在20世纪得到了应用。确定常规物质中氮的方法是杜马斯提出的,确定硫和辐射光的方法是李比希提出的。
在19世纪中期,大多数研究人员认为,一个有生命的结构的后果是通过一种关键力量的工作场所传达的,这种力量只存在于活的植物和动物身上。这些东西可以变成各种各样的东西,但是不能在实验室里从它们的部分中制造出来。这种被称为活力论的观点在1828年受到维勒的真正打击,当时他通过氰化银和氯化铵反应来固化尿素。然而,这并不意味着活力论的终结,因为维勒不顾自己在实验室里做出了一个有特色的东西,而是通过其他两种正常物质的反应做出了这个东西。活力论在1844年得到了一个基本的集合,当时Kolbe加入了来自非常见材料的酸性破坏,Berthelot在1860年展示了碳,氢,氧和氮部分的特征混合物的正常结合的可能性,激发了活力论的离开。在19世纪中期本质安全的可能性的变化表明关键力量的可能性是没有必要的。
探索共混方法的主要尝试是自由基理论。自由基被认为是“一种物质的一致部分,它通过一系列反应运动保持其特性,而不管它是一种化合物”。拉瓦锡认为,当一个自由基与氧结合时,就形成了一个破坏性分子。自由基是一段矿物酸;然而,对于普通酸来说,它是一种既含碳又含氢的化合物。不同规则酸的自由基含有不同量的碳和氢。该自由基的可能性通过盖伊-吕萨克对氰化氢和氰化氢的检查而联系起来[22-25].氰化物自由基被认为在一系列反应中不会发生变化,因此自由基被认为是一种特别稳定的粒子社会事件,在混合反应中作为一个单元进行反应。
工业化学进展
随着智能科学的发展和新混合物的披露,收集系统和前沿科学的策略发生了变化。大约在上世纪初,钾盐是主要的盐,它是从木材烟灰中提取的。勒布朗建立了一套从盐中获取汽水的方法,在相当长的一段时间里,这是获得无限规模的可溶解碱的主要技术。这种方法很快就被索尔维法或注意盐溶解法彻底取代了,而且在很大程度上可以想象,在不久的将来,沿着这些路线,这种方法将被从盐的作用过程中获得溶剂基的电解技术所取代。物质工业新体系的改进是可以预见的;更稳定的技术需要提供方法来处理更多的财务和完美的程序。一百多年来,所有使用的硫破坏剂都被制成了一块铅室,一个又一个的变化被添加到这个策略上,直到它被传递到一个高度完美的状态;然而现在,随着新世纪的到来,破坏硫的制造者正在拆除他们的铅室。另一种更好的制造破坏性武器的方法已经被设计出来。二氧化硫和空气被碾压在精细分离的铂上,由此产生的三氧化二硫被打入水中。 It has for a long while been understood that sulphuric destructive can be made thusly on the little scale in the examination office, yet it is generally starting late that the standard has been conformed to the business preparation of the destructive. Up to this time the inconvenience has been that the contact substance, the finely segregated platinum, soon lost its activity, Now it has been discovered this can be overcome by means of meticulously cleaning the gasses before they associate with the platinum and that, by keeping the temperature of the " teaming up gasses underneath the reason for deterioration [26-35]的三氧化二硫,这一行动可以不确定地进行,并达到商业规模。由此产生的三氧化二硫被冲入水中,产生了任何级别的硫破坏。机械科学中的其他基本变化是通过利用能量来安排工程零件和共混物而实现的。像尼亚加拉大瀑布这样的地方,对电流时代有丰富的水影响,正在迅速转变为基础发明组织的所在地。电流目前主要作为无机科学两门课程中的一门。在任何情况下,它都是用于形成高温的电加热器。在直接结构中,电加热器包含一个火件实例,其中设置了一个电动圆形部分灯的碳轴。在碳笔之间产生的高温的影响下,每一个金属氧化物都通过碳减少,因此在尼亚加拉瀑布铝氧化物减少,铝青铜(铝和铜的复合材料)被制成。沙子相对减少了,硅部分与多余的碳结合,构成了化合物碳化硅,这是一种非常坚硬的物质,被广泛用作金刚砂的替代品。在电热炉中以同样的方式制备了假石墨和假磷,并制备了多种金属的碳化物。在这些碳化物中,电石具有重要的商业价值,因为它通常被用来制造乙炔。 The other course in which the electric energy is utilized is for the electrolysis of liquids, either game plans of substances in water or merged substances. At Niagara, metallic sodium is as of now made by the electrolysis of merged acidic pop. One of the businesses of the metallic sodium is to get prepared sodium peroxide, the new biting the dust administrator, for which reason the metal is seethed in dry air. Metallic aluminum is gotten by the electrolysis of aluminum oxide in an interlaced shower of cryolite. Blistering pop and chlorine are made by the electrolysis of salt plans, and potassium chlorate by the electrolysis of potassium chloride course of action. The electric current is moreover used as a piece of refining certain metals, for which reason sheets of the harsh metal are suspended at one shaft in a shower of the metal salt and the flawless metal spared at the other post. In the midst of the earlier century mind blowing headway has been made in the techniques for isolating the metals from their minerals. Has this been substantial for iron, and in addition of all the accommodating metals? For example, it is only vital to call attention to the cyanide strategy of isolating gold and silver. Gold and silver minerals which are poor to the point that it was unfruitful to work them in prior years are without further ado viably treated with an answer of potassium cyanide, which has the power, inside seeing air, of dissolving the good metals. It is this system which has, as it were, added to the extended formation of gold starting late. One alongside the other with this change of metallurgical strategies has gone the use of by-things. Not simply is effect warmer slag used as a piece of making Portland concrete, yet diverse slags, for instance, those got in the vital steel system and which contain phosphoric destructive, are used as fertilizers [36-41].由铅和锌金属炖煮形成的二氧化硫不再被允许逃逸到空气中,而是转变为具有硫破坏性的物质。
有机化学进展
但是,事实上,在科学的进展中,最活跃的漫步是在上个世纪被称为常规科学的领域中取得的。一百年前,我们对发生在植物和动物器官中的混合物的了解在很大程度上是没有道理可言的。已经分离出两到三种有特点的物质,但是它们的合成还不完全清楚,因为检验方法非常苛刻。李比希在1830年改进了分离这些混合物的方法,从而确立了正常科学的体系。一个世纪以前,人们普遍认为,普通的混合物在任何能力、形状或框架上都不可能通过合成物在检查重点中不真实地制造出来,就像矿物混合物的情况一样。它被设想为一个难以错过的关键权力通过某种方式或另一种方式介入。它们是在动植物的器官中创造出来的,我们永远也不可能想把它们放在探测室里。尽管如此,这种想法很快就会被放弃,因为1828年维勒成功地从直接无机物中制出尿素,从而影响了一种特征物质的基本混合。这很快就被Kolbe的酸性破坏作用所取代,随后是一个明显无休止的时间度量,越来越多的物质被添加到所制成的混合物中。要把勘探室里误导人的每一次升级都列出来,要花太长时间。 It is adequate to say that the hydrocarbons of petroleum, standard alcohol, wood alcohol, fusel oil, the ethers, the ethereal and significant oils, the unsaturated fats, glycerin, grape sugar and regular item sugar, shading matters and shading stuffs like indigo and turkey red, fragrant substances like oil of extreme almonds, vanillin and cou-marine and various others, have been made, One hundred years earlier it was all things considered acknowledged to be shocking for two substances of inside and out different properties to have the same synthesis. Exactly when Liebig in 1823 found that Wohler had dismembered silver cyanide, and communicated the rate synthesis, he saw that it was undefined with the rate association of silver detonate as found without any other individual. He right this minute created to Wohler and let him realize that he probably dedicated a mistake. Silver cyanide and silver impact were out and out various substances, he said; they couldn't in any capacity, shape or frame has the same piece. Wohler repeated his examinations and found that they were correct. Liebig again examined silver detonates and found that his figures in like manner were correct. Both substances had the same rate piece. Two or three years after, Berzelius showed that racemic and tartaric acids have the same piece, however different properties, and from this time on substances of this kind have been called isomeric. This wonder of isomerism, so unprecedented at one time, is at present to a great degree essential, We have, for occurrence, 55 substances having the formula C HMO" all having the same segments in the same degrees, or the. Same kind of particles and the same number of particles of each kind. To illuminate isomerism it was imperative to expect that in these different bodies the atoms are contrastingly sorted out or grouped thus there came into science structure or constitution and by this term is inferred the way in which the particles are joined to outline the tiniest particles of blends.
从公元1800年到1900年,化学的进展可以表现为以下流程图:
通过考虑作用过程和混合物衰变的方法,已经发现有可能确定哪些粒子彼此之间的联系更紧密。1865年,作为凯库勒教授在波恩的工作的最终成果,物质构成的选择系统取得了很大的进展。凯库勒可能表明,在一个凸起中,每个粒子并不是特别地与不同的粒子连接在一起,而是特定的原子像链条中的关联一样,将正确的粒子聚集在一起,勾勒出正确的结构。这一理论的迅速影响是,它激发了大量的工作,其目的是选择不同物质中原子的结合方式。